Transportation's role in reducing U.S. Greenhouse gas emissions

Vol 1: Synthesis report
U.S. Department of Transportation
Report to Congress
April 2010

A number of strategies can be used to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transportation, such as using low-carbon fuels, increasing vehicle fuel economy, improving system efficiency and reducing travel that involves high levels of carbon emissions, according to a report released ... by the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT).

Full Press release by Department of Transportation

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Achieving emissions reductions in the freight sector: Understanding freight flows and exploring reduction options

Georgetown Climate Center
James J. Winebrake, PhD.
Rochester Institute of Technology
Presented via Webinar for the Talking Freight Seminar: Freight and the Environment Part I
21 March 2012

Freight is closely tied to economic growth and is growing; unfortunately, the bulk of freight is moved by high energy-intensive and GHG-intensive modes (truck).

On behalf of the Transportation and Climate Initiative, Dr. James Winebrake recently conducted an analysis of all freight moving through the northeastern United States.

The presentation shows some examples of emissions, costs and time for freight routes, and potentially sets the stage for additional work in this area.

The IF-TOLD Mitigation Framework

• Intermodalism/Infrastructure– use of efficient modes and infrastructure
• Fuels – use of low carbon fuels
• Technology – application of efficient technologies
• Operations – best practices in operator behavior
• Logistics – improve supply chain management
• Demand – reduce how much STUFF we consume

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Transport, trade and climate change: Carbon footprints, fuel subsidies and market-based measures

Joachim Monkelbaan
International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development
Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development - BMZ
Working paper
November 2011

International transport, be it by ship, airplane, train or truck, is essential for international trade and to global economic development. However, transport is at the same time the fastest growing source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

The objective of this paper is to examine the viability and potential effects of different actions that Germany and the European Union (EU) can take to curb the growth of GHG emissions from the international transport sector. It analyzes different options that policy makers have available to reduce transport induced emissions. In doing so, this paper takes the impacts on trade, especially for developing countries, into account. The overarching question that is reverberates throughout this paper is: what are the advantages and disadvantages of different measures that Germany and the EU can take to limit emissions from trade-related transport?

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Plus: Annex I: Carbon footprint of some chilean exports

Oil prices and maritime freight rates: An empirical investigation

UNCTAD
April 2010

Oil is the major energy source powering the global economy, supplying 95% of all the energy used in world transport.

Maritime transport, which carries over 80% of the volume of global merchandise trade, relies heavily on oil for propulsion, and in view of the limitations imposed by existing technology and costs, it is not yet in a position to adopt effective energy substitutes.

With oil becoming increasingly scarce and more costly to produce, and with prices having already risen to close to $150 per barrel (pb) in July 2008, the question of how changes in oil prices affect shipping costs is of considerable interest.

For the trade of many developing countries, excessive international transport costs already pose a considerable obstacle.

To help improve understanding of oil prices as a determinant of transport costs, UNCTAD conducted an empirical analysis of the relationship between oil prices and maritime freight rates. While the analysis focused on container transport, it also covered some dry and wet bulk trades, namely, iron ore and crude oil.

The findings of the analysis, presented in a technical report entitled Oil Prices and Maritime Freight Rates: An Empirical Investigation, confirm that rising oil prices drive up maritime freight rates in all three trades examined, with estimated elasticities varying, depending on the market segment and the specification.

For container trade, the effect of oil prices on container freight rates is estimated to be larger in periods of sharply rising and more volatile oil prices, compared to periods of low and stable oil prices.

These results entail some potentially important implications for maritime transport and trade, if oil prices resume the spiralling trend observed in 2007 and 2008 and sustain high and possibly unprecedented levels.

In view of the heavy reliance of maritime transport on oil for propulsion, further analytical work on the effect of energy prices on maritime freight rates is urgently required, especially as rising fuel costs may lead to proportionately higher maritime transport costs for developing countries.

In this context, energy security and investments in alternative, greener energy and technology for cost-efficient and sustainable maritime transportation conducive to trade and development are of the essence.

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Understanding how ecodriving public education can result in reduced fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions

E. Martin, N. D. Chan, and S. A. Shaheen.
Innovative mobility
Submitted to TRB Annual Meeting 2012
November 2011

Ecodriving, the concept of changing driving behavior and vehicle maintenance to impact fuel consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in existing vehicles, has gained recent prominence in North America. One ecodriving strategy involves public education through Internet-based information dissemination. This paper presents the results of a controlled stated-response study conducted with approximately 100 University of California, Berkeley faculty, staff, and students, assessing the effectiveness of static ecodriving web-based information. A comparison of the experimental and control groups found that exposure to ecodriving information influenced people's driving behavior and maintenance practices. The experimental group's distributional shift was statistically significant, particularly for key practices including: lower highway cruising speed, driving behavior adjustment, and proper tire inflation. Within the experimental group (N = 51), fewer respondents significantly changed their maintenance practices (16%) than the majority that altered some driving practices (71%); this suggests intentional altering of driving behavior is easier than planning better maintenance practices. A comparison of before- and after-surveys found that 57% of the experimental group improved their ecodriving behavior, while 43% made no change or worsened. Key characteristics of the drivers that improved include: being female, living in smaller households, and owning a newer car with higher fuel economy. While it was evident that not everyone modifies their behavior as a result of reviewing the website, even small shifts in behavior due to inexpensive information dissemination could be deemed cost effective in reducing fuel consumption and emissions.

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White paper on transport

Roadmap to a single european transport area — Towards a competitive and Resource-efficient transport system
European Comission
March 2011

This illustrated brochure comprises the text of the european commission’s White Paper ‘roadmap to a single european transport area — towards a competitive and resource-efficient transport system’ (com (2011) 144 final of 28 march 2011) and a foreword by vice-president Siim Kallas, commissioner for transport. 

The European Commission adopted a roadmap of 40 concrete initiatives for the next decade to build a competitive transport system that will increase mobility, remove major barriers in key areas and fuel growth and employment. At the same time, the proposals will dramatically reduce Europe's dependence on imported oil and cut carbon emissions in transport by 60% by 2050 .

By 2050, key goals will include:

• No more conventionally-fuelled cars in cities. 
• 40% use of sustainable low carbon fuels in aviation; at least 40% cut in shipping emissions. 
• A 50% shift of medium distance intercity passenger and freight journeys from road to rail and waterborne transport. 
• All of which will contribute to a 60% cut in transport emissions by the middle of the century.

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Versión en castellano

Versión en inglés

Watch the video on the White Paper, check out the 50 Facts and Figures on Transport

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A note on the relationship between obesity and driving

Sheldon H. Jacobson, Douglas M. King, Rong Yuan
Transport Policy
Junio 2011

Vehicle travel and obesity rates in the United States have surged in recent decades. This paper contributes to the mounting evidence of a link between them by drawing attention to a very close relationship between trends in miles driven per licensed driver and adult obesity rates six years later. It also presents evidence on why the effect might be expected to be lagged by six years. A simple model is produced, which predicts reductions in obesity rates over the next few years. If these reductions come about, the model will be seen to offer a powerful insight into the relationship between driving and obesity. If the relationship is more than coincidental, it has implications for transport policy and supports the development of a multi-pronged, interdisciplinary approach to tackle increased driving and obesity.

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Guía para la gestión del combustible en las flotas de transporte por carretera

Instituto para la Diversificación y Ahorro de la Energía - IDAE
Serie Eficiencia y Ahorro Energético - Eficiencia en el Transporte
Enero 2006

El IDAE ha decidido realizar la edición de la presente “Guía para la gestión del combustible en las flotas de transporte por carretera”, con el objeto de difundir a los profesionales de la gestión de flotas de transporte las nociones bási­cas y procedimientos utilizados para la realización de una gestión más eficiente del combustible. En la elaboración del manual, el IDAE ha contado con la colaboración de CEFTRAL (Confederación Española de Formación del Transporte y la Logística) y el apoyo del Ministerio del Interior (Dirección General de Tráfico) y del Ministerio de Fomento (Dirección General de Transportes por Carretera). Además, han participado también distintas flotas de transporte en el proceso de recopilación de información, mostrando sus sistemas y procedimientos de gestión del combustible.

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UNCTAD: Oil Prices and Maritime Freight Rates: An Empirical Investigation

UNCTAD
April 2010

The technical report by the UNCTAD secretariat assesses the effect of oil prices on maritime freight rates for containerized goods and two particular commodities, iron ore and crude oil.The results are of particular interest in view of increasing oil supply constraints expected over the coming decades which may lead to significant increases in oil prices, possibly to levels which have not yet been reached.

Nota de prensa

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Fuel Tax Incidence in Developing Countries The Case of Costa Rica

Allen Blackman, Rebecca Osakwe, and Francisco Alpizar
Environment for Development
Discussion Paper Series EfD DP 09-24
Resources for the future
October 2009

Although fuel taxes are a practical means of curbing vehicular air pollution, congestion, and accidents in developing countries—all of which are typically major problems—they are often opposed on distributional grounds. Yet few studies have investigated fuel tax incidence in a developing country context. We use household survey data and income-outcome coefficients to analyze fuel tax incidence in Costa Rica. We find that the effect of a 10 percent fuel price hike through direct spending on gasoline would be progressive, its effect through spending on diesel—both directly and via bus transportation would be regressive (mainly because poorer households rely heavily on buses), and its effect through spending on goods other than fuel and bus transportation would be relatively small, albeit regressive.

Finally, we find that although the overall effect of a 10 percent fuel price hike through all types of direct and indirect spending would be slightly regressive, the magnitude of this combined effect would be modest. We conclude that distributional concerns need not rule out using fuel taxes to address pressing public health and safety problems, particularly if gasoline and diesel taxes can be differentiated.

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Road transport and climate change: Stepping off the greenhouse gas

John K. Stanley, David A. Henshera and Chris Loader
Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice
May 2009

Transport is Australia’s third largest and second fastest growing source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The road transport sector makes up 88% of total transport emissions and the projected emissions increase from 1990 to 2020 is 64%. Achieving prospective emission reduction targets will pose major challenges for the road transport sector. This paper investigates two targets for reducing Australian road transport greenhouse gas emissions, and what they might mean for the sector: emissions in 2020 being 20% below 2000 levels; and emissions in 2050 being 80% below 2000 levels. Six ways in which emissions might be reduced to achieve these targets are considered. The analysis suggests that major behavioural and technological changes will be required to deliver significant emission reductions, with very substantial reductions in vehicle emission intensity being absolutely vital to making major inroads in road transport GHG emissions.

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Red,White, and Green: Transforming U.S. Biofuels

Worldwatch Institute
June 2009



Over the last decade, biofuels have been championed in the United States as a new source of income for rural communities, as a way to reduce dependence on foreign oil, and most recently as a solution to the country's energy and climate change problems. These latter concerns are now the main driver behind the promise of biofuels, leading the United States and other governments across the world to encourage greater production and use. But as the market for biofuels expands, so too do the social, economic, and environmental impacts.

Rapid growth in biofuels use in the past five years has contributed to a sharp increase in food, feed grain, and soybean prices in the United States and abroad. These price fluctuations have fueled a global debate over "food versus fuel." At the same time, the global economic recession has led the U.S. biofuels industry to contract, threatening jobs and livelihoods.

Studies suggest that the environmental costs of producing "first-generation" biofuels such as corn-based ethanol on a large scale likely outweigh the benefits. These costs include increased water pollution, the loss of wildlife habitat, and declining freshwater resources. Of particular concern is the link between biofuels expansion and the global conversion of land for agriculture, as biofuel crops compete with forests and food crops for limited land and other resources.

Corn ethanol leads to only minimal, if any, reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, an oft-touted benefit and justification for expanding biofuels production. Current best estimates suggest that corn ethanol provides only a 12 to 18 percent net reduction in emissions, on average, compared to gasoline. If land that is rich in carbon is converted from forests or other natural ecosystems to biofuels production, these benefits can fall away completely.

These concerns point to a crossroads for the U.S. biofuels industry. The country must now choose between a business-as-usual approach that worsens environmental and climate problems, or a more cautious approach during which decision makers take the time to "get biofuels right" before rushing forward with more production. Taking the more sustainable path includes an immediate transition to "second-generation" biofuels while phasing out reliance on unsustainable first-generation fuels.
Advanced biofuels can be produced not just from annual crops, but also from fast-growing trees and grasses as well as from a range of organic wastes and potentially even algae. The feedstocks can be grown on marginal land that does not have to compete with food production and that can be cultivated in ways that minimize harmful effects on water quality and wildlife habitat. These feedstocks may also require fewer fossil fuel inputs and retain more carbon in their soils than corn and soybeans, enhancing their ability to mitigate climate change.

Research is now under way on the conversion of cellulose to biofuel, and dozens of entrepreneurs are working to commercialize this and other advanced biofuel technologies. There is no guarantee, however, that the production of advanced biofuels at a large scale will be environmentally beneficial, although current assessments show much promise.
Three broad efforts in U.S. policy would make biofuels production more environmentally sustainable and help ensure that the use of biofuels for transportation contributes to both energy security and global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions:

1. ‑Spur the rapid development of cellulosic and other advanced biofuels that significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, using existing economic instruments and other tools.

2. ‑Develop sustainability standards and make government support for biofuels conditional on meeting these standards.

3. ‑Create a holistic energy policy across all transportation-related sectors.
Reforming U.S. biofuel policies will require overcoming an array of economic forces that uphold the current industry structure. Present policies reward the least promising biofuels, and if they are not reformed, rising damage to the landscape and climate will fuel greater opposition.

Although second-generation biofuels are not a panacea, they offer the prospect of a more sustainable energy future. Getting there will require careful analysis of biofuel production, distribution, and use, including alternate ways to grow feedstock, power refineries, and use byproducts. Decision makers should also consider wider transportation solutions such as more fuel-efficient vehicles, investments in public transportation, ways to reduce congestion, and urban planning that promotes biking and walking.

The solution to the biofuels challenge is not simply a matter of substituting different feedstocks. Rather, it is about finding a new model that takes the United States down a truly red, white, and green path.

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Airline Industry Contraction Due to Volatile Fuel Prices and Falling Demand Affects Airports, Passengers, and Federal Government Revenues

U.S. Government Accountability Office
April 2009

The U.S. passenger airline industry is vital to the U.S. economy. Airlines directly generate billions of dollars in revenues each year and catalyze economic growth. Interest in the airlines’ ability to weather volatile fuel prices and the economic recession led to congressional requests for a GAO review. GAO examined how (1) the
financial condition of the U.S. passenger airline industry has changed, the principal factors affecting its condition, and its prospects for 2009; (2) airlines have
responded to the factors affecting their financial condition; and (3) changes in the industry have affected airports, passengers, and the Airport and Airway Trust Fund
(Trust Fund), which funds the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) capital programs and most of its operations. To do this, GAO analyzed financial and operating
data, reviewed studies, and interviewed airline, airport, and FAA officials and other experts. The Department of Transportation (DOT) provided technical comments, which were incorporated as appropriate.

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Energy efficiency technologies for road vehicles

Shigeki Kobayashi, Steven Plotkin and Suzana Kahn Ribeiro
Energy Efficiency
Nº 2
2009

A key message of the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is that improved energy efficiency is one of society’s most important instruments for combating climate change. This article reviews a range of energy efficiency measures in the transportation sector as discussed in AR4 and assess their
potentials for improving fuel efficiency. The primary focus is on light-duty vehicles because they represent the largest portion of world transport energy use and carbon dioxide emissions; freight trucks, a rapidly expanding source of greenhouse emissions, are also discussed. Increasing energy efficiency can be achieved by improving the design and technology used in new vehicles, but vehicle technology is only one component of fleet fuel economy. Measures that create strong incentives for customers to take energy efficiency into consideration when buying and operating
their vehicles will be crucial to policy success.

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A review of regulatory instruments to control environmental externalities from the transport sector

World Bank Policy Research Working Paper #4867
March 2009

This study reviews regulatory instruments designed to reduce environmental externalities from the transport sector. The study finds that the main regulatory instruments used in practice are fuel economy standards, vehicle emission standards, and fuel quality standards. Although industrialized countries have introduced all three standards with strong enforcement mechanisms, most developing countries have yet to introduce fuel economy standards. The emission standards introduced by many developing countries to control local air pollutants follow either the European Union or United States standards. Fuel quality standards, particularly for gasoline and diesel, have been introduced in many countries mandating 2 to 10 percent blending of biofuels, 10 to 50 times reduction of sulfur from 1996 levels, and banning lead contents. Although inspection and maintenance programs are in place in both industrialized and developing countries to enforce regulatory standards, these programs have faced several challenges in developing countries due to a lack of resources. The study also highlights several factors affecting the selection of regulatory instruments, such as countries' environmental priorities and institutional capacities.

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